A Comprehensive Review on Cardiovascular Diseases: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Emerging Therapeutic Strategies

Abstract

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) constitute the leading cause of mortality and morbidity globally, representing a major public health challenge in both developed and developing nations. The increasing prevalence of CVD is strongly associated with rapid urbanization, sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy dietary habits, and an aging population. This review provides a comprehensive and updated overview of cardiovascular diseases, focusing on epidemiology, pathophysiological mechanisms, risk factors, current treatment modalities, emerging therapeutic strategies, and recent clinical trial evidence. The pathogenesis of CVD is multifactorial, involving endothelial dysfunction, lipid accumulation, chronic inflammation, and thrombogenesis, ultimately leading to atherosclerosis and its complications. Conventional pharmacological interventions, including antihypertensive agents, lipid-lowering drugs, antiplatelet agents, and anticoagulants, remain the cornerstone of management. However, novel therapeutic approaches such as PCSK9 inhibitors, sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists, and gene-based therapies have demonstrated significant clinical benefits in recent studies. Additionally, advancements in artificial intelligence and precision medicine are revolutionizing early diagnosis and individualized treatment strategies. This review aims to highlight recent developments and provide insights into future directions for effective prevention and management of cardiovascular diseases.